Aflatoxin and Kwashiorkor

The aetiology and pathogenesis of kwashiorkor remains obscure. Clinical and epidemiological studies are in progress in Sudan to determine whether aflatoxins play a role in the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor. Local foods are screened for their aflatoxin content and children with kwashiorkor and age and sex matched children with marasmus and with normal nutrition are being investigated for aflatoxins in their blood and urine. Autopsy liver samples of children with kwashiorkor and other nutritional disorders in Nigeria and South Africa have been examined for their aflatoxin content. Aflatoxins are detected using two dimensional thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography. Results to date on over 350 children studied show that aflatoxins occur more frequently and at higher concentrations in the sera of children with kwashiorkor than in children with marasmus or in normal children. Urinary excretion of aflatoxins in kwashiorkor appears to be less than in other groups. In the autopsy liver samples, aflatoxins have been detected in all kwashiorkor livers but not in livers from marasmic children. These findings seem to implicate aflatoxins in the pathogenesis of kwashiorkor. If this is confirmed it would have very wide implications for the management and prevention of kwashiorkor.




Aflatoxins and kwashiorkor. Epidemiology and clinical studies in Sudanese children and findings in autopsy liver samples from Nigeria and South Africa.(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6673848?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_DiscoveryPanel.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=1&log$=relatedarticles&logdbfrom=pubmed)

some more information on analytical identification of aflatoxins

Solid-Phase Extraction
All analytical procedures include three steps: extraction, purification, and determination. The most significant recent improvement in the purification step is the use of solid-phase extraction.
Test extracts are cleaned up before instrumental analysis (thin layer or liquid chromatography) to remove coextracted materials that often interfere with the determination of target analytes.

High-pressure Liquid Chromatograph
High-pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) is widely used as a separation technique in aflatoxin analysis to separate, identify, and quantify compounds. It includes analyte application, stationary phase, and mobile phase.
Liquid chromatography methods for the determination of aflatoxins in foods include normal-phase LC (NPLC), reversed-phase LC (RPLC) with pre- or before-column derivatization (BCD), RPLC followed by postcolumn derivatization (PCD), and RPLC with electrochemical detection.

Immunochemical Methods
HPLC methods for determining aflatoxins in food are laborious and time consuming. These techniques often require knowledge and experience of chromatographic techniques to solve sepatation and and interference problems. Through advances in biotechnology, highly specific antibody-based tests are now commercially available that can identify and measure aflatoxins in food in less than 10 minutes. These tests are based on the affinities of the monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies for aflatoxins. The three types of immunochemical methods are radioimmunoassay (RIA), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and immunoaffinity column assay (ICA).





http://www.fs-pt.com/analytical_laboratory_services/aflatoxin_aspergillus_analysis.html

More on alflatoxin toxicity

Aflatoxin affects liver causing cirrhosis, hepatoma, hepatitis, and Rey's disease as, well as affect other organs like kidney, myocardium, and muscles. Even it may lead to decreased immunity in animal. A study conducted among the Philippine people with liver cancer showed 440% higher consumption of aflatoxin as compared to controls.

Time to time there has been outbreaks of aflatoxin toxicity caused by the consumption of moldy grain. A recent outbreak of jaundice due to aflatoxin toxicity occurred in Kenya. The mortality rate was as high as 39%. The problem is more in this part of the world where there is no proper place to keep the grains dry for long time. It is very difficult to keep all foodstuff in airtight containers. In an outbreak, 106 people died and 291 showed symptoms of hepatic dysfunction after consumption of moldy maize. Although liver, kidney, and muscles are commonly affected by aflatoxin, the brain is also affected. Autopsy of Thai children who died due to encephalopathy showed aflatoxin in their specimen. There are reports of the presence of aflatoxin in the blood of people from Nepal, who consumed contaminated food and feed. In a study, more than 11% children with kwashiorkor showed aflatoxin in their blood as compared to none of the controls. It has been shown that the birth weight of the baby is also affected if mothers have taken aflatoxin in their food during pregnancy. A strong negative correlation between aflatoxin and birth weight has also been observed.

Aflatoxin not only gives rise to cases of poisoning but is also associated with cancer (liver), kwashiorkor, and growth retardation among children.




http://www.indianjmedsci.org/article.asp?issn=0019-5359;year=2005;volume=59;issue=8;spage=331;epage=336;aulast=Koirala

Aflatoxins analysis

1.Initial assays will involve detection by HPLC, with confirmation by LC-MS. In countries where mycotoxins have been monitored in baby food, the methods used frequently involved immunoaffinity columns cleanup and HPLC or MS quantitation.


High-performance liquid chromatography (or High pressure liquid chromatography, HPLC) is a form of column chromatography used frequently in biochemistry and analytical chemistry to separate, identify, and quantify compounds. HPLC utilizes a column that holds chromatographic packing material (stationary phase), a pump that moves the mobile phase(s) through the column, and a detector that shows the retention times of the molecules. Retention time varies depending on the interactions between the stationary phase, molecules being analyzed, and the solvent(s) used.

Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is an analytical chemistry technique that combines the physical separation capabilities of liquid chromatography (aka HPLC) with the mass analysis capabilities of mass spectrometry. LC-MS is a powerful technique used for many applications which has very high sensitivity and specificity. Generally its application is oriented towards the specific detection and potential identification of chemicals in the presence of other chemicals (in a complex mixture).

2. Detection and estimation for aflatoxin were done by using the thin layer chromatography method (TLC). Thin layer chromatography method is one of the commonest and widely used techniques to detect different types of food contaminants. Comparison of toxicity levels for aflatoxin was done by comparing fluorescence of sample spot with fluorescence of standard.

Thin-Layer Chromatography :
Thin layer chromatography (TLC) , also known as flat bed chromatography or planar chromatography is one of the most widely used separation techniques in aflatoxin analysis. Since 1990, it has been considered the AOAC official method and the method of choice to identify and quantitate aflatoxins at levels as low as 1 ng/g. The TLC method is also used to verify findings by newer, more rapid techniques .

http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/projects/projects.htm?ACCN_NO=410262
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LC/MS
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPLC
http://www.ansci.cornell.edu/plants/toxicagents/aflatoxin/aflatoxin.html

Health implications of alflatoxin

Human exposure to aflatoxin is through ingestion of contaminated foods. Inhalation of the toxins may also occur occasionally due to the occupational exposure.

Symptoms of acute toxicity: vomiting, abdominal pain, pulmonary edema, convulsions, jaundice, coma, and death with cerebral edema and fatty involvement of the liver , kidneys , and heart. Long term intake of aflatoxin can be associated with hepatic cancer.

Adult humans usually have a high tolerance of aflatoxin, and, in the reported acute poisonings, it is usually the children who die

For humans, aflatoxin is predominantly perceived as an agent promoting liver cancers, although lung cancer is also a risk among workers handling contaminated grain

http://www.fehd.gov.hk/safefood/report/aflatoxin/text_report.html
http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/80/5/1106

Aflatoxin

Aflatoxin is the secondary metabolite produced by specific strains of Aspergillus, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. These species contaminate various agricultural commodities either before harvest or at post-harvest stages under favourable conditions of temperature and humidity.Aspergillus is a large genus of mould which grows at an optimal range of temperature of 28-33°C and at the water activity of about 0.83-0.97. The aflatoxigenic moulds, namely A flavus, A parasiticus and A nomius are principally found in soils and decaying vegetation. They occur in warmer parts of the world such as tropical region where temperature and moisture are high. They have a higher affinity of growth in nuts and oilseeds.

Characteristics of Aflatoxin

• Aflatoxin is classified into a number of subtypes. However, the most important ones are B1, B2, G1 and G2, distinguished by their fluorescenct colour under ultraviolet light. In addition, aflatoxin, M1 and M2 are hydroxylated metabolites of aflatoxin B1 and B2.
  
• Unlike Aspergillus, which often look greenish to the naked eyes, aflatoxins are odourless, tasteless and colourless. Chemically, they are stable in foods and resistant to degradation under normal cooking procedures. It is difficult to eliminate aflatoxin once it is produced.
  
• Accumulation of aflatoxin is dependent upon weather conditions. Before harvest, the risk for the development of aflatoxin is greatest during major droughts. When soil moisture is below normal and temperatures are high, the number of Aspergillus spores in the air increases. These spores infect crops through areas of damage caused by insects, and inclement weather. Once infected, plant stress occurs, the production of aflatoxin is favoured.
  
• During post-harvest stage, proliferation of aflatoxin can be exacerbated in susceptible commodities under storage conditions such as hot and humid storage environment.

http://www.fehd.gov.hk/safefood/report/aflatoxin/text_report.html

pH of peanut butter

I've found one that say the pH of peanut butter is 6.28.

http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/lacf-phs.html

edited flowchart

I've added in the cooling temperature for P6 in the flowchart. But i can't seem to find the time for both P2 and P6.

Product Recall Procedures

Recall is an effective method of removing or correcting violative products that may represent a health hazard to the consumer or user. It is an action taken by a manufacturer, distributor, or importer to carry out their responsibility to protect the public health and well-being.

During recalls, the primary role of the Health Protection Branch is to closely monitor the effectiveness of the firm's recall actions and to provide scientific, technical and operational advice. If a recalling firm's performance is deemed to be inadequate, the Branch is prepared to take appropriate action to remove the product from sale or use. A firm's recall does not preclude enforcement actions being taken by the Branch, as deemed appropriate, either during or following the completion of the recall.

Recall Notification

It is imperative that before or upon initiating a recall, the recalling firm notifies the Health Protection Branch. The basic information required includes the following:

1. The name of the recalled product and, where applicable, the identifying model designation, serial number, code, lot number and any other means of identification.
   

2. The total quantity of the recalled product originally in his possession.
   

3. The total quantity of the recalled product that had been distributed up to the time of the recall.
   

4. Area of the distribution of the recalled product by province and, if exported, by country.
   

5. The quantity of the recalled product still in his possession.
   

6. The reason for initiating the recall.

This information is usually provided verbally but it should be confirmed in writing. For drugs and medical devices, please refer to the specific recall notification requirements in the Food and Drug Regulations and the Medical Devices Regulations respectively.

Elements of a recall strategy

A recall strategy will address the following elements regarding the conduct of the recall:

1. Depth of recall - Depending on the product's degree of hazard and extent of distribution, the recall strategy will specify the level in the distribution chain to which the recall is to extend, as follows:
   

   1. Consumer or user level, which may vary with product, including any intermediate wholesale or retail level; or
      
      

   2. Retail level, including any intermediate wholesale level; or
      
      

   3. Wholesale level.
      
      

2. Recall Communications - From the recalling firm to its affected accounts. See Item 6, page 6.
   

3. Public Warning - The purpose of a public warning is to alert the public that a product being recalled presents a serious hazard to health. It is reserved for urgent situations (Class I and occasionally Class II Recalls) where other means for preventing use of the recalled product appear inadequate. The Assistant Deputy Minister decides whether a public recall announcement is mandatory and whether the Health Protection Branch will issue the warning.
   
   The recall strategy will specify the type of public warning, for example:

   1. General public warning through the general news media, either national or local as appropriate, or
      

   2. Public warning through specialized news media, e.g., professional, trade or ethnic press, or to specific segments of the population such as physicians, hospitals, etc.

4. Effectiveness checks - The purpose of effectiveness checks is to verify that all consignees at the recall depth specified by the strategy have received notification about the recall and have taken appropriate action. The method for contacting consignees may be accomplished by personal visits, telephone calls, letters, or a combination thereof. The recalling firm is responsible for conducting effectiveness checks. The firm's recall strategy will specify the method(s) to be used for and the level of effectiveness checks that will be conducted by the recalling firm as follows.

   1. Level A - 100 percent of the total number of consignees to be contacted;
      

   2. Level B - Some percentage of the total number of consignees to be contacted, which percentage is to be determined on a case-by-case basis, but is greater than 10 percent and less than 100 percent of the total number of consignees
      

   3. Level C - 10 percent or less of the total number of consignees to be contacted, which percentage is to be determined on a case-by-case basis; or
      

   4. Level D - No effectiveness checks.
      
      

   The Health Protection Branch, sometimes assisted by other health agencies, may carry out its own effectiveness checks as part of monitoring the recalling firm's performance. This is a separate exercise which must not be considered as part of, or supplement to, the recalling firm's responsibilities for adequate effectiveness checks.

Reference:

http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/dhp-mps/compli-conform/recall-retrait/recall_proc-marche_retrait_e.html

Can I get avian influenza from eating or preparing poultry or eggs?

Can I get avian influenza from eating or preparing poultry or eggs?

You cannot get avian influenza from properly handled and cooked poultry and eggs.

There currently is no scientific evidence that people have been infected with bird flu by eating safely handled and properly cooked poultry or eggs.

Most cases of avian influenza infection in humans have resulted from direct or close contact with infected poultry or surfaces contaminated with secretions and excretions from infected birds. Even if poultry and eggs were to be contaminated with the virus, proper cooking would kill it. In fact, recent studies have shown that the cooking methods that are already recommended by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for poultry and eggs to prevent other infections will destroy influenza viruses as well.

Reference: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/qa.htm